LESSON 2 OF 2
Mitochondria, NAD+ and aging research
By the end you can
- Explain why mitochondria matter in aging research
- Describe NAD+, MOTS-c, humanin and SS-31
- Place Epithalon, FOXO4-DRI and bioregulators on the evidence scale
The cell's power plants
Mitochondria turn food into usable energy. Studies report that their output falls with age, which makes them a major focus of aging research. NAD+ is a coenzyme they need for that work, and studies report lower levels in many older tissues. Small human studies exist (C).
Peptides from and for mitochondria
MOTS-c and humanin are small peptides encoded in the mitochondria's own DNA, studied in cells and mice for metabolism and cell protection (D). FDA advisers voted 7–5–2 in July 2026 to recommend allowing MOTS-c in pharmacy compounding. SS-31 (elamipretide) targets cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It received FDA accelerated approval, as Forzinity, for Barth syndrome, a rare genetic disease (A, for the approved product only).
Other aging research
FOXO4-DRI is a designed peptide that, in a 2017 mouse study, cleared aged "senescent" cells (D). Epithalon (also spelled Epitalon) comes from Russian research on the pineal gland, a small gland in the brain that makes melatonin, and on telomeres, the protective caps on the ends of chromosomes. It has small human studies (C), and FDA advisers voted 7–4–1 in July 2026 to recommend allowing it in pharmacy compounding. The other bioregulators are short peptides from the same Russian research program, each studied for one tissue. Most are graded C or D, and their human data comes mostly from the developers' own group.
"Anti-aging" and "longevity" are claims about people. Describe the research instead.
Marker 1: NAD+ · coenzyme
- NAD+, grade C
Marker 2: MOTS-c and humanin · encoded in mtDNA
- MOTS-c, grade D
- humanin, grade D
Marker 3: SS-31 · binds cardiolipin
- SS-31, grade A
grade covers the approved product only
Key terms
- Mitochondria
- The parts of a cell that make energy.
- Coenzyme
- A helper molecule enzymes need to work, like NAD+.
- Senescent cell
- An aged cell that has stopped dividing but doesn't die.
- Cardiolipin
- A fat in the inner mitochondrial membrane that SS-31 targets.
- Accelerated approval
- An FDA approval based on early evidence, with more studies required to confirm the benefit.
Remember
- NAD+ and mitochondrial peptides are central to aging research.
- SS-31 is the only one with an approved branded drug (Forzinity).
- "Anti-aging" is a claim; describe the research instead.